ࡱ> ='` RYbjbj +]p&p&p& z& z*z*z*D-%D$S88^xxx(rl8/111`--q$phz*'"(''))xxJ555'T)xz*x/5'/55}z:*@z*x @wΩ0.$c@H8 3|z*'>|5hd">>>5>>>8''''SSTdV,>SST,*,:-&j(0)))) INTERGOVERNMENTAL OCEANOGRAPHIC COMMISSION (OF UNESCO) ___________WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION _____________DATA BUOY COOPERATION PANEL TWENTY-FIFTH SESSION IOC of UNESCO, PARIS, FRANCE 28 SEPTEMBER 1 OCTOBER 2009DBCP-XXV/Doc. 6.2 (04.IX.2009) ITEM: 6.2 ENGLISH ONLY REPORT BY THE TASK TEAM ON INSTRUMENT BEST PRACTICES AND DRIFTER TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT (submitted by Dr. William Burnett, Chair of the Task Team) Summary and purpose of document This document contains the report by the chairperson of the DBCP Task Team on Instrument Best Practices and Drifter Technology Development. It also includes the draft CIMO Guide (WMO No.8) that includes proposed changes, for the review and comments by the Panel.  ACTION PROPOSED The panel will be invited to note the information contained in this document and to provide the Group with guidance regarding its future work, as necessary. ______________________ Appendices: A. Reports by the Task Team on Instrument Best Practices and Drifter Technology Development. B. Proposed changes to CIMO Guide (WMO No. 8) -A- Draft TEXT for inclusion in the final report Dr William Burnett, chairperson of the Task Team reported on the progress regarding the instrument best practices and technology development. The full report of the Task Team is provided in the meeting document as well as in the CD-ROM for the final report. The Panel agreed on the followings were recommended: [Recommendations made by the Panel] The Panel then agreed on the following action items: [Actions agreed by the Panel] The Panel thanked Dr. Burnett and members of the Task Team for their efforts. ____________ Appendix: 1 Task Team on Instrument Best Practices and Drifter Technology Development Report for 2009 During the intersessional period, the DBCP drifters performed well, in general. The Task Team would like to make reference to the proposal by the WMO Integrated Global Observing System (WIGOS) Pilot Project for JCOMM to agree on a strategy for updating the WMO and IOC Technical Regulations. This Task Team will be expected to commit some time and effort to support this activity, especially in observing Sea Surface Temperatures (SST) and to support DBCPs request for resources to employ a consultant to support the activity. Further discussions on this topic will occur during the meeting under agenda item 11.5. Global Drifter Program/Data Assembly Center Evaluation The Global Drifter Program/Data Assembly Center continues to evaluate drifters transmitter and drogues life. During this intersessional period they reported that in 2008 Technocean made an adjustment/improvement to their submergence sensor that lead to a much clearer signal that helped in the interpretation of drogue lost. Their drifters with strain gauge sensors also had a clear signal of drogue lost, but in either case the number of drogued days did not improve. Pacific Gyre drifters with submergence sensors continue to be pegged at the highest possible values for a long period of time, indicating exceptional drogue life time or some sort of malfunctioning of the submergence sensor. Pacific Gyre drifters carrying strain gauge drogue sensor deployed as part of the Bay of Biscay study last year all failed to report drogue values, no other strain gauge drifters have been made by Pacific Gyre. Metocean submergence sensors have always given clear drogue off signals, they also manufactured drifters with strain gauge sensors that were recently deployed in July 2009. Clearwater has been using strain gauge sensors for several years, the signal indicator of drogue off is very clear although the number of days drogue stays on still needs improvement. Pacific Gyre is making a new wind drifter that measures wind with acoustic anemometer on the surface float rather than using a subsurface hydrophone. These new wind drifter design are expected to be tested during the 2009 hurricane season. MetService NZ Evaluation During the southern summer (2008/2009) MetService New Zealand deployed 40 SVPB buoys into the Southern Ocean to the south and east of NZ under the Southern Ocean Buoy Programme (SOBP). The buoys were all manufactured by Technocean, 30 were GDC Buoys and 10 were NOAA buoys upgraded by MetService NZ. The performance of these 40 buoys was marred by some early drogue failures and intermittent spikey air pressure data. Of the 40 buoys deployed in the period August 2008 to February 2009, thirteen drogues were lost in the first 90 days. The pressure data from 8 buoys was removed from GTS due to spikey and erratic data, 7 within the first six months and another at 9 months. The problem of spikey buoy pressure was raised with Technocean and members of the TT IBPDTD, and individual buoys showing spikey pressure in December and January were compared with wave data to see if there was any correlation between air pressure spiking and significant sea state. In this period, no relationship between spikes and waves could be seen, and this led to discussions about whether buoys without drogues were submerged more often, thus not allowing barometer breathing to occur. In March 2009, three buoys within close proximity of each other showed an odd diurnal signal where pressure spiking occurred in a synchronized manner at about local noon. The reason for this effect was discussed and solar heating was discounted as a possible cause. All three buoys had lost their drogues. MetService NZ would welcome a review of the air pressure de-spiking algorithm. It was hoped that the DBCP-M2-TEST format, as used on some buoys, might offer clues to how the de-spiking algorithm could be improved. The on-board processing capability of buoys is now such that a new sampling regime and algorithm could be performed. Centre of Marine Meteorology of Mto-France Evaluation Iridium drifters -------------------- The Centre of Marine Meteorology of Mto-France focused mainly on its technical activities evaluating the Iridium Short Burst Data (SBD) transmission as an alternative to Argos for operational purposes. The work, which concerns SVP-B drifters as well as other platforms, is partly seen as a contribution to the DBCP Drifter Iridium Pilot Project. SVP-B prototypes from three manufacturers all fitted with a GPS were first evaluated by Mto-France. Then, several batches of SVP-Bs, without GPS were ordered for E-SURFMAR 125 buoys in all. Out of them, about one hundred were deployed and more than sixty were in operation by mid-July 2009. Globally, these buoys have provided excellent results for availability and timeliness. The number of reports received from E-SURFMAR drifting buoys within 50 minutes increased significantly and their quality appeared the same than those Argos buoys. The amount of buoys which ceased to work after emptying their batteries is now sufficiently high to measure mean lifetimes. A complete report on the evaluation of Iridium drifting buoys will be presented at the Technical and Scientific Workshop. To satisfy both oceanographic and meteorological needs the new Iridium SVP-Bs ordered from 2009 were fitted again with GPS. GPS positions will be first received every three hours. Three Iridium SVP-Bs built by Technocean will be soon tested by Mto-France. The raw Iridium data of all these buoys, plus a few ones from other organizations, are received and processed at Mto-France. They are coded into FM18-BUOY and FM94-BUFR messages and sent onto the GTS a few minutes after the observation. Ice drifters reporting Air Pressure --------------------------------- In the frame of the International Polar Year, different kind of drifters reporting air pressure at the sea surface were deployed in the Arctic Ocean through EUCOS/E-SURFMAR funding. Fourteen buoys were deployed: two IcexAir from CMR (air deployed in 2006), two Iridium SVP-B, two standard Argos SVP-B and three ICEB buoys from Metocean (in 2007), five Argos SVP-B from Metocean in 2008. Four additional buoys will be soon deployed. IcexAir and ICEB buoys report the air temperature in addition of Air Pressure. ESURFMAR will try to continue to deploy drifting buoy in the Arctic Ocean. SVP-BS (salinity) and SVP-BTC (temperatures in depth) ---------------------------------------------------------- The evaluation of SVP-BS buoys from Metocean and Pacific Gyre continues. These evaluations will be particularly useful during calibration and validation of the SMOS (Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity) satellite which should fly in 2010. The first SVP-BS transmitting through Iridium was deployed in the Gulf of Biscay in May 2009. Unfortunately it stopped transmitting at the end of June. The buoy, developed by Metocean, was recovered at sea. Mto-France also continues to evaluate SVP-BTC drifters from Marlin Yug. Eight buoys were deployed in the North Atlantic since 2005. The last buoy deployed in mid-June 2008, with a new version of the thermistor string ( 80 metres long), has been in operation for eleven months in the Atlantic Ocean. Marlin Yug deployed three Iridium SVP-BTC in the Black Sea by August 2009. The data are sent onto the GTS by Mto-France. Marisonde GT (wind and temperatures in depth) ---------------------------------------------------------- FGGE type drifting buoys, fitted with a thermistor chain, have been used for several years to contribute to the study of sea-air interactions. The Marisonde buoys measure the wind, atmospheric pressure and sea temperature at various levels. The ARGOS system is used for location and data transmission. New generation of Marisonde buoys are under construction. The bathythermic string is 300 meters long, includes 16 temperature sensors and 4 hydrostatic pressure sensors on two separate bus. Stain gauge test ------------------- Meteo-France deployed 15 SVP-B for Global Drifter Center (GDC) of NOAA/AOML in Biscay Bay by August 2008, fitted with strain gauge on the anchor, in 5 clusters of 3 buoys, for evaluation. Three out of them were recovered at sea (2 Technocean and 1 Pacific Gyre) and sent back to AOML by May 2009. Environmental Canada Evaluation Environment Canada continues to deploy Iridium drifters manufactured by MetOcean (all equipped with GPS). Seven Iridium buoys will be deployed later this year in the Northeast Pacific, however we have faced challenges finding ships of opportunity or other options allowing for deployment north and west of traditional shipping routes. Experience to date with 2 Iridium drifters suggest improved timeliness of observations and reduced costs when compared to ARGOS drifters in the same area. Environment Canada is working with JouBeh Technologies Inc. and Scotia Weather Inc. to facilitate GTS routing of drifting buoys operated by commercial companies in Atlantic Canada. The Oil and Gas industry deploys a small number of SVP type buoys each year to support their operations (not certain if they have barometers). The new arrangement will allow data received from new Iridium drifters operated by commercial firms to be routed to the GTS, in time increasing data available to users in the Northwest Atlantic. Marlin Yug Comments Their evaluation of first prototype of Iridium-GPS SVP-B mini drifter in the South Atlantics has showed that the buoy has good quality of AP measurements under any environmental conditions for full-lifetime. Since 2008 all the drifters were provided with Real Time Clock (RTC) on basis of GPS synchronization or factory installed watch for drifters without GPS. GPS synchronization allowed them to establish high accuracy GMT time for the buoy. RTC can be used for different goals, e.g. for samples at round hours. On-board data processing has been updated to optimize buoy interaction with Iridium link, with the goal to have shorter durations of SBD sessions and have, at the same time, more attempts for SBD sessions, to increase buoy's lifetime and to eliminate doubled hourly samples sent via Iridium. Iridium modem and GPS receiver antennas have been replaced to the top of surface float, as close as possible, to have better radio visibility between buoy and satellite systems in different weather conditions. Those transferences were carried out to have smaller probability of most fresh GPS fixes gaps as well as to decrease Iridium transmission duration. The buoy's software was updated to avoid the GPS data gaps, when bad weather conditions, transmitting fresh of old fixes in each message. New prototype of Iridium SVP-BTC80/RTC/GPS temperature-profiling drifter was developed in 2009 and 3 buoys have been deployed in the Black Sea. These buoys have a few fundamental differences in contrast with former prototypes (e.g. another data format; data from 42 sensors are transmitted; 30-min repetition period; data processing inside a buoy to connect the temperature and depth of the temperature sensor, when bend of temperature chain; etc.). New GPS receivers with faster cold start and better keeping of almanac introduced in to Iridium SVP-BTC drifters have demonstrated that there are no gaps in GPS data, even if maximum level of submergence takes place. Development of Argos-3 SVP-B mini drifter with hourly samples and two-year lifetime has been completed. ______________________ The Chair of the Task Team on Buoy Best Practices and Drifter Technology Developments would like to thank members for their hard work during the intersessional period, and for providing the input for this report. ______________________ marine observations 4.1 General Marine observations in the broadest definition cover any meteorological and related environmental observations at the air sea interface, below the sea surface and in the atmosphere above the sea surface (upper-air measurements). Detailed formal requirements for observations from sea stations are given in WMO (2003). Advice on requirements and procedures is given in WMO (2001). This chapter considers observations at the air sea interface, which include the usual surface measurements made also over land and discussed in that context in other chapters. This chapter also considers some subsurface measurements of importance to marine physics and physical oceanography. Upper-air measurements are taken using techniques that are essentially the same over the sea and over land; these will not be considered in this chapter. Measurements and observations of waves are not described elsewhere in this Guide. Visual methods are discussed in section 4.2.12. Automated methods are referred to in section 4.3, although the techniques are applied on other types of platforms. Observations can be made using fixed or moving platforms, and be in situ or remote, using surface- or space based techniques. In situ measurements are essentially single-point observations intended to be representative of the surrounding sea area, as for synoptic meteorology. Remote-sensing techniques lead to large area or volume representation, which is particularly appropriate for observations of sea ice. In situ measurements These measurements or observations are made from a variety of platforms. They include ships of the voluntary observing fleet (also referred to as the Voluntary Observing Ship Scheme (VOS) Programme) , Scheme, ocean weather stations, manned and unmanned light vessels, moored buoys, drifting buoys, towers, oil and gas platforms and island automatic weather stations. The type of platform generally determines the range of elements measured and reported. Thus, ships of the voluntary observing fleetVOS, using mainly manual observation techniques, make the full range of observations required for synoptic meteorology (and distributed in the FM 13 SHIP or BUFR code), whereas the simplest drifting buoy might report position and sea surface temperature only. Remotely sensed measurements Marine measurements can be made remotely from surface- and space based systems. At present, surface based remote-sensing systems are available to measure or observe precipitation (weather radar), near surface winds (Doppler radar), surface ocean currents, surface wind, and sea state (microwave radar for short-range and high-frequency radar for long-range, for example, over the horizon, sensing). These techniques are described in Part II, Chapter 9. In addition, the techniques for remote detection and location of lightning, described in Part II, Chapter 7, are applicable to the marine environment. Remote sensing from space is used for the measurement of many surface marine variables. It is probable that, as technology advances, remote sensing from space-borne platforms will provide the bulk of sea state, wind and sea surface temperate data over the world s oceans. It should be noted, however, that in situ measurements are essential to supplement and calibrate these data. Remote-sensing systems from space are described in Part II, Chapter 8. 4.2 Observations from ships This section contains detailed guidance and advice for taking measurements and making observations on ships. Reference WMO (1991a) is another source. Details on surface observations to be carried out within the framework of the WMO VOS scheme are provided in WMO (2001), Chapter 6. Studies of the quality of observations from ships are given in WMO (1991b; 1999), Taylor and others (1999) and Wilkerson and Earle (1990). 4.2.1 Elements observed Ships which undertake meteorological observations should be equipped for observing or measuring the following elements: (a) Ship position; (b) Wind speed and direction; (c) Atmospheric pressure, and pressure tendency and its characteristics; (d) Present and past weather, and weather phenomena; (e) Clouds (amount, type and base height); (f) Visibility; (g) Air temperature; (h) Humidity (dewpoint); (i) Precipitation; (j) Sea surface temperature; (k) Ocean sea waves and swell  height, period and direction; (l) Sea ice and/or ice accretion on board ship, when appropriate; (m) Ship course and speed. As regards the order of observing these elements, in general, instrumental observations requiring the use of a light should be made after non instrumental ones, so that to the observer s eyes can adapt to the darkness without being impaired. The observation of elements other than pressure should be made within 10 min preceding the standard time for the synoptic observation, whereas atmospheric pressure should be read at the exact time or as close as possible to the standard time. 4.2.2 Equipment required The following instruments are suitable for use on ships: (a) A precision aneroid, dial aneroid or electronic barometer or marine mercury barometer; (b) A hygrometer or psychrometer; (c) A barograph, preferably open scale (desirable but not mandated); (d) A sea temperature thermometer and suitable receptacle for obtaining a sample of seawater, or a continuously immersed sensor (or a hull contact sensor) with remote indicator; (e) A raingauge adapted for use aboard a ship (optional: for reporting past and present weather and for climatological purposes). The use of anemometers with representative exposure as an alternative to the visual estimation of wind force is encouraged. The instruments used on ships should conform to the requirements laid down or recommended in other chapters of this Guide, apart from the modifications described in the following sections of this chapter. Instruments supplied to ships should be tested or and regularly inspected by the Meteorological Services concerned. 4.2.3 Times of observation Surface observations on board ships are made as follows: (a) Synoptic observations should be made at main standard times: 0000, 0600, 1200 and 1800 UTC. When additional observations are required, they should be made at one or more of the intermediate standard times: 0300, 0900, 1500, and 2100 UTC; (b) When operational difficulties on board ships make it impracticable to make the synoptic observation at a main standard time, the actual time of observation should be as near as possible to the main standard times. In special cases, the observations may even be taken one full hour earlier than the main standard time. In such cases, the actual time of observation should be indicated; (c) Observations should be made more frequently than at the main standard times whenever storm conditions threaten or prevail; (d) When sudden and dangerous weather developments are encountered, observations should be made for immediate transmission without regard to the standard times of observation (i.e. within 300 nautical miles of a named tropical system); (e) Marine observations are just as valuable in coastal zones as in the open ocean and observations should be continued during the whole journey. 4.2.4 Automation of observations on ships and data transmission Automated or partially automated systems on board ships have been developed, both for observation and data transmission purposes. Three basic modes of operation are used, as follows: (a) The observation is made manually, typically entered into an electronic logbook on a computer a processing device (typically a personal computer), coded, as necessary, and formatted for automatic or manually initiated transmission; (b) The observation is made automatically using standard automatic weather station techniques, as described in Part II, Chapter 1. The position, course and speed of a ship are taken from its navigation system or computed independently using a satellite navigator (for example, global positioning system). The transmission of such observations can be either purely automatic or initiated manually according to the communications facilities; (c) The observations are a combination of automated and manual observations, namely, automated observations augmented with visual observations entered by the observer before transmission (i.e. adding visibility, wave heights). Satellite communication systems are now in widespread use for disseminating ship observations. Details are given in WMO (2001), section 6.6. The following three methods are available: (a) The International Data Collection System through the meteorological geosynchronous (GOES, METEOSAT, MTSAT) satellites. This system, funded mainly by meteorological agencies, allows for purely automatic data communication at predetermined time slots, once an hour. Data transmission is one way only and error rates can be significant; (b) Commercial satellite systems, for example, through INMARSAT to a coast Land earth stationEarth Station (LES) typically using a Special Access Code (SAC) or binary formatted message Code 41. These systems are very reliable and offer two way communication, but often require manual initiation; (c) Service Argos: This system is primarily designed for location as well as data transmission and is limited by the number and the orbital characteristics of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration polar-orbiting satellites. Argos can be used for the communication and processing of ship observations (WMO, 1995a). 4.2.5 Wind Observations of wind speed and direction may be made either by visual estimates or by means of anemometers or anemographs. On ships fitted with instruments, the observations should consist of the mean reading over a 10 min period. When observations are taken from a moving ship, it is necessary to distinguish between the relative and the true wind; for all meteorological purposes the true wind must be reported. A simple vector diagram or a table may be used for computing the true wind from observations of the relative wind and ship speed and course (Bowditch, 2002). In practice, this vector conversion is a frequent source of error in reported winds. Some electronic logbook software, e.g. TurboWin, will compute True wind automatically.Special slide rules and hand computers are also available, and programs can be installed on small computers. Wind speed needs to be corrected for effective height or a standard reference level (10 m, see WMO, 2003). Details on the reduction calculus are given in WMO (1989). 4.2.5.1 Visual observations Visual estimates are based on the appearance of the sea surface. The wind speed is obtained by reference to the Beaufort scale (see table). The wind direction is determined by observing the orientation of the crests of sea waves (that is, wind driven waves, and not swell) or the direction of streaks of foam which are blown in the direction of the wind. The specifications of the Beaufort scale numbers refer to the conditions in the open sea. In practice, wind directions made by visual methods are of good quality. The wave height in itself is not always a reliable criterion since it depends not only on wind speed, but also on the fetch and duration of the wind, the depth of shallow waters, and the presence of swell running through a sea. The Beaufort scale, therefore, makes use of the relation between the state of the sea and the wind speed. This relation is, however, affected by several other factors which should, in principle, be taken into account in estimating wind speeds. These factors are the lag between the wind increasing and the sea rising, the smoothing or damping down of wind effects on the sea surface by heavy rain, and the effects of strong surface currents (such as tidal currents) on the appearance of the sea. Sea criteria become less reliable in shallow water or when close inshore, owing to the effect of tidal currents and the shelter provided by the land. At these locations, or when the surface of the sea cannot be clearly seen, the Beaufort force of the relative wind on the ship may be estimated by noting wind effects on sound, on ship borne objects such as flags, and on funnel smoke. In the latter case, the direction of the relative wind may also be estimated, for example, by observation of the funnel smoke. From these estimates, the speed and direction of the true wind can be computed (United Kingdom Meteorological Office, 1995). If no other means are available to estimate the wind direction, low level cloud movement can be a helpful tool. 4.2.5.2 Measurements with instruments If instruments for measuring wind are installed on ships, the equipment should give both wind speed and direction and should be capable of minimizing roll effects (suitably designed cup anemometers and damped wind vanes are capable of rendering the effects of pitch and roll insignificant). In most cases, it is difficult to obtain a good exposure for ship borne wind instruments (Taylor and others, 1999; Yelland, Moat and Taylor, 2001). The local effects produced by the superstructure, mast and spars should be minimized as much as possible by siting the instrument as far forward and as high as practicable. If fitted on a yard, it may be preferable that the speed and direction heads should form separate units, as a more even distribution of the weight on the yard can be obtained, and it may then be possible to fit the instruments farther outboard. Whether fitted on a yard or on a bracket fixed to the foremast, each unit should be mounted in position at a distance of at least 10 mast diameters away from the mast. If this is impracticable, a good technique is to fit two instruments, one on each side of the foremast, and always to use the one which is more freely exposed. The top of the foremast, if available, is generally thought to be the best site for an anemometer. The marine environment is harsh so anemometers require regular maintenance and calibration in order to produce reliable wind data. Various types of portable anemometers are on occasion used at sea. Their main disadvantage is that they can hardly be given representative exposure, and, in practice, measurements taken with them show substantial scatter. Only an observer who understands the nature of the air-flow over the ship in different circumstances would be able to choose the best place for making such observations and thus arrive at satisfactory results. This method may be useful if visual estimates of wind force are difficult or impossible, for example, with light winds at night. 4.2.6 Atmospheric pressure, pressure tendency and characteristic of pressure tendency 4.2.6.1 Methods of observation Pressure can be measured either by a precision aneroid, a dial aneroid or an electronic or by a mercury barometer. In the case of the latter, the pumping effect, namely rapid and regular changes in the height of the mercury, should be allowed for when a reading is made. This is done by taking the mean of two or three sets of readings, each set consisting of the highest and lowest points reached during the oscillation of the mercury in the tube. The characteristic and amount of the pressure tendency in the past 3 h are obtained from a marine barograph, preferably an open scale instrument graduated in divisions of 1 hPa. Alternatively, the amounts of pressure tendency can be obtained from successive readings of the mercury barometer at the beginning and end of the 3 h interval. 4.2.6.2 Instruments Mercury barometers In practice, the proper installation and operation of mercury barometers at sea have proven very difficult, and mercury barometers are now rarely installed on board ships. The mercury barometers used on board ships are mostly of the fixed cistern pattern. In addition to possessing the requirements of a good station barometer, a marine barometer should be appropriately damped in order to reduce pumping of the mercury column. This can be arranged by constricting the bore of the tube for the lower and greater part of its length by means of capillary tubing. The time-constant of a marine barometer can be conveniently estimated by tilting the instrument so that it is reading 50 hPa above the actual pressure, and then by returning the barometer to a vertical position and noting the time taken for this difference to fall to 18 hPa above the actual pressure; the time should be between 4 and 9 min. Digital, Electronic, and aneroid barometers and barographs All barometers should conform to the general requirements given in Part I, Chapter 3, and should be supplied with a certificate giving the corrections (if any) that must be applied to the readings of each individual instrument. Barometers should be capable of being read to 0.1 hPa. The operational measurement uncertainty requirements and instrument performance are stated in Part I, Chapter 1, Annex 1.B. The required measurement uncertainty is less than 0.1 hPa (after reduction to sea level: < 0.2 hPa). The achievable measurement uncertainty should never be worse than 0.3 hPa. Marine barographs should have a built in damping device, for example, an oil bath containing the aneroid box or a dash pot connected to the lever mechanism, to prevent the wide trace produced by rapid pressure variations caused by gusty winds and movement of the ship. Both the barometer and barograph should also be vented to the outside with a static pressure head so that readings can be taken more accurately and are not affected by sealed bridges or indoor wind impacts. This is especially important on newer vessels or hazardous load carriers whose pilothouses are hermetically sealed. In general precision aneroid and electronic barometers are set to station level pressure and need to be corrected for the height of the barometer to give a sea level pressure output. Dial aneroid barometers are typically set to indicate sea level pressure. 4.2.6.3 Exposure and management Mercury barometers It is usually very difficult to give a marine barometer an exposure which satisfies the requirements specified in Part I, Chapter 3. The barometer should be mounted on gimbals in a position as near as possible to the centre of flotation, where it can swing freely and is not liable to interference from passing crew or passengers, and where the temperature is as uniform as possible. If the barometer is put into a protective box between the hours of observation, care must be taken that the instrument is put into a free position at least half an hour before the observation is made. Digital and aneroid barometers and barographs Barometers and barographs should be mounted on shock absorbing material in a position where they are least affected by concussion, vibration or movement of the ship. The best results are generally obtained from a position as close to the centre of flotation as possible. Barographs should be installed with the pen-arm oriented athwart ships (to minimize the risk of its swinging off the chart). 4.2.6.4 Corrections Provision should be made for the application of the following corrections: (a) Mercury barometers: (i) Index error; (ii) Temperature of the instrument; (iii) Latitude (gravity); (iv) Reduction to sea level (not mean sea level). These corrections may be combined in a single table with the temperature of the attached thermometer and the latitude as arguments, or a Gold correction slide may be used. This special slide ruler is attached to the barometer and incorporates the attached thermometer. It gives the total barometer correction and reduction to sea level in one operation; (b) Aneroid barometers: (i) Scale Instrument error (bias); (ii) Reduction to sea level (not mean sea level) as appropriate; (iii) Temperature (if applicable and appro-priate tables are provided). Barometers should be adequately compensated for temperature, otherwise the instruments should be provided with a temperature correction table and means should be provided for measuring the temperature. Barometers should either be set to sea-level pressure or a A table for reducing to sea level pressure should also be supplied (Bowditch, 2002, Tables 29 34). Some electronic logbook software e.g. TurboWin will apply the correction for the height of the barometer and therefore no manual height correction should be applied. 4.2.6.5 Sources of error Errors are discussed in Part I, Chapter 3, but on ships in particular appreciable errors may be caused by the effect of the wind on the pressure in the compartment in which the barometer is placed. These should be minimized by enclosing the instrument in a chamber connected to a static pressure head or by connecting the device directly to this static pressure head. Pressure measured by mercury barometers on ships would be subject to large apparent oscillations, which should be suppressed in a marine barometer. In an undamped barometer, one source of these errors would be the regular oscillation of the barometer when hanging freely. The error amount would depend on the position of the point of suspension, the period of swing of the barometer and the amplitude of the oscillation from the true vertical (which may be much smaller than the oscillation about an axis fixed relative to the ship). A barometer mounted on gimbals and oscillating regularly for a considerable time (15 min or more) with a swing of about 10 could read as much as 4 hPa too high. If, however, the amplitude of the swing were 2, the error would be only about 0.2 hPa. On account of the time-constant of the barometer, the fluctuations due to the pressure variations caused by the lifting and sinking of a barometer (rolling or pitching) are of less importance. The pumping of the mercury meniscus in an undamped barometer would be largely due to the varying acceleration to which the barometer is subjected by the movements of the ship. Thus, the error of a single corrected undamped barometer reading on board a ship could vary from 0.2 hPa to a few hectopascals, according to the circumstances. 4.2.6.6 Checking with standard instruments The mercury barometer should be frequently checked against standard instruments on shore (at least once every three months), and a permanent record of all such checks should be kept on a suitable card or in a special log. Aneroid barometersBarometers and barographs should be checked at approximately three monthly intervalsfrequently against the Port Meteorological Officers (PMO) Transfera (portable) standard Standard reference barometer on shore preferable every three months. In common practice, however, an interval of six months is found to be appropriate as well. A permanent record of all comparisons should be kept in a permanent log by the PMO, and a calibration label attached to the barometer showing the barometer check date and the correction to be applied.such checks should be attached to the instrument, and should include such information as the date of the check and the temperature and pressure at which the check was made. It is particularly important that barometers and barographs be checked more frequently when the instruments are new. 4.2.7 Clouds and weather Visual cloud and weather observations should follow the same rules as those applicable to a land station (see Part I, Chapters 14 and 15) (see also the annex for descriptions of forms of precipitation). Detailed instructions and tips on how to make these observations should be provided through the affiliated Port Meteorological Office or by any Port Meteorological (Liaison) Officer, bearing in mind that most observers at sea are voluntary observers. In the absence of instrumental aids, the cloud base height must be estimated. In order to improve their ability to do this, observers should be encouraged to take every opportunity to check their estimates against known heights, for example, when a cloud base is seen to intercept a mountainous coast, although in such circumstances the cloud base may be lower at the mountain than out at sea. The cloud base searchlight is of limited value on a ship because of the short baseline. An instrument which does not require a baseline is to be preferred, such as a laser ceilometer (see Part I, Chapter 15). It should be installed so that it can be operated and read by the officer on watch on the navigation bridge. 4.2.8 Visibility At sea, the absence of suitable objects makes it impossible to estimate visibility as accurately as at land stations. In recognition of this, a coarse code scale is normally used in reports from sea stations. On a large ship, it is possible to make use of objects aboard the ship for estimation when the visibility is very low, but it should be recognized that these estimates are likely to be in error since the air may be affected by the ship. For the higher ranges, the appearance of the land when coasting is a useful guide, and, if fixes can be obtained, the distance of landmarks, just as they are appearing or disappearing, may be measured from the chart. Similarly, in open sea, when other ships are sighted and their distances known, for example, by radar, the visibility may be estimated. In the absence of other objects, the appearance of the horizon, as observed from different levels, may be used as a basis for the estimation. Although abnormal refraction may introduce errors into such methods of estimation, these methods are the only ones available in some circumstances. At night, the appearance of navigation lights can give a useful indication of the visibility. When the visibility is not uniform in all directions it should be estimated or measured in the direction of least visibility and a suitable entry should be made in the log (excluding reduction of visibility due to the ship s exhaust). Information about visibility meters is given in Part I, Chapter 9. Only those types of visibility meters which can be used with a baseline or light path short enough to be practicable on a ship are suitable. Unfortunately, the heating effect of the ship, and its exhaust, may lead to unrepresentative measurements. 4.2.9 Air temperature and humidity Temperature and humidity observations should be made by means of a hygrometer or psychrometer which has good ventilation. The instruments must be well exposed in a stream of air, directly from the sea, which has not been in contact with, or passed over, the ship, and should be adequately shielded from radiation, precipitation and spray. Sling or aspirated psychrometers exposed on the windward side of the bridge have been found to be satisfactory. If manually operated psychrometers are used, the thermometers must be read as soon as possible after ventilation has stopped. Hand-held hygrometers require several minutes to be acclimated to the open environment if they have been stored indoors before use. If a louvred screen is to be used, two should be provided, one secured on each side of the vessel, so that the observation can also be made from the windward side. In this way, thermometers in the hygrometer can be completely exposed to the air-stream and are uninfluenced by artificial sources of heat and water vapour. As an alternative, a portable louvred screen can be used, which is hung on whichever side is windward to gain the same exposure. The muslin wick fitted to a wet bulb thermometer in a louvred screen should be changed at least once each week, and more often in stormy weather. For the general management of psychrometers, the recommendations of Part I, Chapter 4 should be followed. Distilled water should be used for the wet bulb thermometer. If this is not readily available, water from the condenser will generally be more suitable than ordinary freshwater. Water polluted by (traces of) seawater should never be used because any traces of salt will affect the wet-bulb temperature significantly. Psychrometers give better results in practice than louvred screens, which evidently are more prone to poor exposure. 4.2.10 Precipitation The measurement of precipitation at sea is discussed in WMO (1962; 1981). As an aid to observers on ships, descriptions of precipitation at sea, for use in reporting present weather, are given in the annex. While not normally reported from transiting vessels, precipitation measurements can still be reported from fixed stations or vessels involved with climatic surveys. 4.2.10.1 Measurements and instruments The complete measurement comprises the determination of both the amount and the duration of precipitation. The amount of precipitation should be measured with a raingauge adapted for use aboard a ship. Readings should be made preferably every 6 h. Amounts of precipitation up to 10 mm should be read to 0.2 mm. Larger amounts should be read to 2 per cent of the total. The required accuracy of the measurement is the same as is given for the resolution of the reading. The duration of precipitation should be recorded in rounded units of 5 min. It is difficult to obtain reliable measurements of precipitation on board a ship, owing to the aerodynamic effect of the superstructure of the ship, the influence of roll and pitch, the capture of spray, and the changes in ship position. The equipment used on ships for the measurement of precipitation should be constructed and exposed in such a manner that the first three effects mentioned above are avoided or minimized as far as possible. Precipitation measurements from fixed stations (lightships, ocean station vessels, large buoys, towers, etc.) are particularly valuable because the effect of ship movement is eliminated and the data can, thus, be included in climatological analyses without reduction. However, the problems of platform motion and salt contamination must still be considered. Gimbal-mounted raingauge The most common instrument used on board ships for the measurement of precipitation is the gimbal mounted raingauge, an arrangement that is not very effective, especially during bad weather, as it is not able to keep the gauge horizontal at all times. An efficient gimbal arrangement is very complicated and expensive and is used only aboard special ships. Generally, when a raingauge is used, a fixed installation with a remote measurement arrangement seems to be a better option. Conical marine raingauge The conical marine raingauge is normally fixed high up on a mast. A plastic tube leads the water to a remotely placed collector on the deck, or in the wheelhouse. This can be a useful device for measuring precipitation, provided that the installation precautions are taken into account. The raingauge orifice should be fixed in a plane parallel to the ships deck. Recording raingauge Two types of recording raingauges have been developed for use at sea. In one type, the collector is installed in the open while the recorder is mounted indoors. The rainwater is channelled along a pipe from the collector to a reservoir near the recorder. A pen linked to a float in the reservoir records the change of water level therein on a chart on a rotating drum. The reservoir is emptied automatically by a siphon when the total collected corresponds to 20 mm of rainfall. In the electrical contact type of raingauge, the connection between the gauge and the recorder is made by electrical means. The rainwater caught by the collector is stored temporarily in a reservoir. After an amount corresponding to 0.5 mm of rainfall has been received, the rising surface touches a needle to close an electric circuit. A motor then closes the inlet valve and simultaneously opens a drain valve. After the water has drained away, the valves revert to their original state and a single pulse is sent to the recorder. Errors occur when the motion of the ship or buoy causes the water level to fluctuate rather than to rise steadily. This limitation can be overcome by using a peristaltic pump. This device drains a fixed quantity of water (rather than all the water available) each time the contact is made and, therefore, is less sensitive to fluctuations in water level; there are also no valves to maintain. The observation of precipitation by radar requires the use of narrow radar beams and calibrating raingauges together with the addition of specialized equipment to monitor the state of the radar and to apply corrections. Radars provided on board ships for other purposes do not have these features and their use for the quantitative observation of precipitation is not normal practice. Exposure The exposure of the raingauge should aim at minimizing the first three effects mentioned above. For a shipboard raingauge, placing the instrument as far forward and as high as practicable seems to be effective. However, other exposures may be found in particular cases to provide for easier management. 4.2.10.2 Precipitation intensity at sea A recording raingauge can, of course, be used for measuring precipitation intensity. Attempts have been made to facilitate visual estimation of rainfall intensity by establishing a relationship with visibility. A relationship was found in slight to moderate rates of precipitation falling from more or less continuous cloud. In other conditions, such as showery weather, however, no reliable relationship has been found. Even for the former conditions, observers should be aware that estimates of visibility at sea are difficult to make with sufficient precision for the rate to be estimated satisfactorily. 4.2.11 Sea surface temperature The temperature to be observed is that of the sea surface representative of conditions in the near surface mixing layer underlying the ocean skin. The sea surface temperature should be very carefully measured. This is because, among other things, it is used to obtain the difference with air temperature, which provides a measure of the stratification of temperature and humidity and of other characteristics of the lower layers of maritime air masses. For these reasons, the temperature of the seawater thermometer should be read to 0.1C. It has not been possible to adopt a standard device for observing sea surface temperatures on account of the great diversity in ship size and speed and because of cost, ease of operation and maintenance consideration. Sea-surface temperature may be observed by: (a) Taking a sample of the sea surface water with a specially designed sea bucket; (b) Reading the temperature of the condenser intake water; (c) Exposing an electrical thermometer to sea water temperature either directly or through the hull; (d) Using an infrared radiometer mounted on the ship to look down on the sea surface. The principal methods used for many years have been (a) and (b). Studies of the difference in temperature provided by the two methods have been made (WMO, 1972) in which it is reported that intake temperatures average 0.3C greater than those measured by sea bucket samples. In recent years, as the speed and height of ships have increased, method (c), which gives the most consistent results, has been more widely used. The use of radiometers is not routinely encountered. Of all these methods, the condenser intake technique is the least desirable because of the great care needed to obtain good results. 4.2.11.1 Sea buckets A sea bucket is lowered over the side of the ship to obtain, a sample of seawater. The bucket is hauled back on board and a thermometer is then used to obtain itsmeasure the temperature of the water. The sample should be taken from the leeward side of the ship, and well forward of all outlets. The thermometer should be read as soon as possible after it has attained the temperature of the water sample, ensuring that it is read out of the direct sunlight. When not in use, the bucket should be hung in the shade to drain. A sea bucket should be designed to ensure that seawater can circulate through it during collection and that the heat exchange due to radiation and evaporation is minimum. The associated thermometer should have a quick response and be easy to read and should preferably be fixed permanently in the bucket. If the thermometer must be withdrawn for reading, it should have a small heat capacity and should be provided with a cistern around the bulb such that the temperature of the water withdrawn with it does not vary appreciably during the reading. The design of the bucket should be deemed adequate for its purpose by the organization recruiting the ship for observations. Measurements from sea buckets of good design (not simple buckets of canvas or other construction) can be expected to agree well over an extensive range of conditions. However, sea buckets are less convenient to use than instruments attached to the ship and their use is sometimes restricted by weather conditions. 4.2.11.2 Intake and tank thermometers The thermometer provided within the intake pipe when the ship is built is normally not suitable for the measurement of sea surface temperature. Thus, the organization recruiting the ship should, with the permission of the shipping company concerned, install an appropriate thermometer. This should preferably be mounted in a special tube providing adequate heat conductivity between the thermometer bulb and the water intake. When a direct reading thermometer is installed in cramped conditions, the observer should be warned of the possibility of readings errors due to parallax. A distant reading system with the display elsewhere (for example, in the engine room or on the bridge) overcomes this problem. The observer should also be aware that, for ships of deep draught, or when a marked temperature gradient exists within the sea surface layer, intake temperature readings usually differ considerably from those close to the sea surface. Lastly, of course, the intake temperature should not be taken when the ship is stationary, otherwise the cooling water is not circulating. The sea chest in the bottom of a ship is a cavity in which the intake pipes may terminate and which may be used to observe the intake temperature. It is a favoured position for the sensor of a distant reading thermometer. Alternatively, a small tank within the hull connected to the seawater outside by several holes may be used. The limitations already mentioned apply to such installations. 4.2.11.3 Hull attached thermometers Hull attached thermometers provide a very convenient and accurate means of measuring sea surface temperature. They are necessarily distant reading devices, the sensor being mounted either externally in direct contact with the sea using a  through the hull connection, or internally (the  limpet type) attached to the inside of the hull. Both types show very good mutual agreement, with the  through the hull type showing a slightly quicker response. The sensors must be located forward of all discharges at a depth of 1 to 2 m below the water line. When large changes of draught can occur, more than one sensor may be needed. There can be considerable problems of fitting and wiring, which is best done when the ship is being built. For subsequent fitting, the limpet-type thermometer avoids the need for drydocking the ship. 4.2.11.4 Trailing thermometers Several means have been devised for trailing the sensor of a distant reading thermometer in the sea at a point from which a sea bucket would take its sample. The differences concern the way in which the connecting cable is brought on board and the arrangement for exposing the sensor to the sea. The cable must be able to withstand the drag of the sensor, while providing a good electrical connection despite the stretch that can occur. An early design used a thickly braided nylon rope inside which was inserted a twin telephone cable of high tensile strength. A more recent design utilizes a PVC garden watering hose with a twin wire conductor passing loosely within. To expose the sensor, a small bucket has been used with loosely packed rubberized hog s hair to prevent damage by shock or vibration. The bucket has two small holes to let the water escape slowly and does not need to be submerged all the time. It takes about 8 s to empty so that periodic wave motions of 2 or 3 s have no adverse effect on the temperatures obtained. In an alternative design, the sea bucket is dispensed with by arranging for the hose to provide the exposure and protection required by the sensor. Along the last 2 to 3 m of the hose, which has an internal diameter of 12 mm, holes of 8 mm in diameter are punched. The end of the hose is closed, apart from a small drainage hole. A length of rope attached to the end of the hose stabilizes the instrument and allows it to slide smoothly along the sea surface with water entering to flow past the sensor. These devices provide readings that are in good agreement with those of an accurate sea bucket and can be used readily. However, since experience is limited, no information is available on their possible fouling by weeds, and so on. Thus, streaming and recovery may be necessary on each occasion as for a sea bucket. 4.2.11.5 Radiometers Because of its temperature, any substance gives off heat energy as infrared radiation. The amount of energy and the wavelength of the radiation depend upon the temperature of the substance and its emissivity. Thus, radiometers which respond to infrared radiation can be used to measure the temperature of a substance. When directed at the sea surface, a radiometer measures the temperature of only the uppermost 1 mm or so, because the emissivity of water is near unity. This uppermost layer is often called the ocean skin. Large temperature gradients, with the coolest temperature at the top, may exist in the first few centimetres of the ocean, especially in relatively calm conditions. Radiometers can be hand held (pointing forward and downward), mounted on the bow or on a boom extending over the water, or carried on an aircraft or satellite. Radiometer measurements do not usually represent sea surface temperatures as defined above, but rather the evaporative surface skin temperature. They are used on only a few ships. 4.2.12 Ocean waves and swell The main topics of this section are the definitions and behaviour of waves and the visual methods of observing them. Automated methods are briefly mentioned in section 4.3 on moored buoys, although they are applied on other types of platforms. 4.2.12.1 Definitions and descriptions of waves Fetch: Distance along a large water surface trajectory over which a wind of almost uniform direction and speed blows. Wind wave or wind sea: Waves raised by the wind blowing in the immediate neighbourhood of an observation site at the time of observation. Swell: Any system of water waves which has left its generating area (or observed when the wind field that generated the waves no longer exists). Wave length: Horizontal distance between successive crests or troughs. It is equal to the wave period multiplied by the wave speed. Wave height: Vertical distance between the trough and crest of a wave. Wave period: Time between the passage of two successive wave crests past a fixed point. It is equal to the wave length divided by the wave speed. Wave speed: The distance travelled by a wave in a unit of time. It is equal to the wave length divided by the wave period. The observation should include the measurement or estimation of the following characteristics of the wave motion of the sea surface in respect of each distinguishable system of waves, namely, sea and swell (principal and secondary): (a) Direction (from which the waves come) on the scale 0136 as for wind direction; (b) Period in seconds; (c) Height. The following methods of observing wave characteristics of separate wave systems should be used as a guide. Wind generated ocean waves occur in large systems which are defined in connection with the wind field that produced the waves and also with the relative position of the point of observation. Bearing in mind the distinction between sea and swell, the observer should differentiate between the recognizable wave systems on the basis of direction, appearance and period of the waves. Figure 4.1 shows a typical record drawn by a wave height recorder. It shows the height of the sea surface above a fixed point against time, namely, it represents the up and down movement of a floating body on the sea surface as it is seen by the observer. It gives a representation of the sea surface in its normal appearance when it is stirred by the wind to form a wind wave. Waves invariably travel in irregular groups with areas of slight wave development of two or more wave lengths between the groups. The irregularity is greater in the wind wave than in a swell. Furthermore, and this cannot be shown by a wave record, groups consisting of two or more well formed waves in the sea can be seen to travel in directions which may differ as much as 20 or 30 from each other; as a result of interference of crossing waves, the crests of sea waves are rather short. Swell waves have a more regular appearance. These waves travel in a rather regular succession and well-defined direction with generally long and smooth crests. Undisturbed typical swell waves may be observed in areas where there has been little or no wind over a period of several hours to a day or more. In most areas, sea and swell are intermixed. In trying to observe the wave characteristics of each of the recognizable wave systems (sea and swell) separately, the observer should be aware of the fact that the higher components of a wind wave resemble swell waves by their comparatively long crests and large periods. It may seem possible to split the assembly of waves of different heights, periods and directions (together forming the system of a wind wave) into two different waves systems and consider the smaller waves as wind waves and the larger waves as swell, but this may not be correct. The distinction between wind waves and swell should be made on the basis of one of the following criteria: Wave direction: If the mean direction of all waves of more or less similar characteristics (in particular, height and length) differs by 30 or more from the mean direction of waves of different appearance (in particular, height and/or length), the two sets of waves should be considered to belong to separate wave systems. Appearance and period: When typical swell waves, characterized by their regular appearance and long crestedness, arrive approximately, namely, within 20, from the direction of the wind, they should be considered as a separate wave system if their period is at least 4 s greater than the period of the larger waves of the existing wind wave. For measuring the mean period and height of a wave system, significant waves should be considered only; these are the higher waves in the centre of each group of well formed waves (Figure 4.1). The flat and badly formed waves (A) in the area between the groups must be omitted from the record. The mean period and the mean height of about 15 to 20 well formed waves; from the centres of the groups is actually required; of course, these waves cannot be consecutive. The smaller wave like disturbances (B) which can be seen clearly to be forming under the action of the wind on top of the larger waves are also to be omitted from the record. Occasionally, waves may be encountered which literally stand out above the environmental waves (C). Such waves may occur singly or in a group of two or three. The observer should not concentrate on these maximum waves only; in order to arrive at a measure for the mean period and mean height of about 15 to 20 waves, he or she should also consider groups of well formed waves of medium height. Consequently, the reported wave height will be smaller than the maximum height obtained by the observed waves. On average, the actual height of 1 out of about 10 waves will exceed the height to be reported. It is common practice to define the significant wave height measured by wave height recorders as the average height of the highest one third of the waves; it should approximate the wave height, which would be estimated by a manual observer. The observer must bear in mind that only measurements or quite good estimates are to be recorded. Rough guesses have little value. The quality of the observations must have priority over their quantity. If only two, or even only one, of the three elements (direction, period, height) could be measured, or really well estimated, for example, at night, the report would still be of value. The above considerations must be taken into account in all methods of observation described below. More details on waves are provided in WMO (1998) and WMO (2001), section 4.4.1. 4.2.12.2 Observations from ordinary merchant ships Wave direction The direction from which the waves are coming is most easily found by sighting along the wave crests and then turning 90 to face the advancing waves. The observer is then facing the direction in which the waves are coming. Wave period This is the only element that can actually be measured on board moving merchant ships. If a stop watch is available, only one observer is necessary; otherwise, two observers and a watch with a second hand are required. The observer notes some small object floating on the water at some distance from the ship: if nothing is available, a distinctive patch of foam can usually be found which remains identifiable for the few minutes required for the observations. The watch is started when the object appears at the crest of the wave. As the crest passes, the object disappears into the trough, then reappears on the next crest, and so forth. The time at which the object appears to be at the top of each crest is noted. The observations are continued for as long as possible; they will usually terminate when the object becomes too distant to identify, on account of the ships motion. Obviously, the longest period of observation will be obtained by choosing an object initially on the bow as far off as it can be clearly seen. Another method is to observe two or more distinct consecutive periods from an individual group while the watch is running continuously; with the passage of the last distinct crest of a group or the anticipated disappearance of the object, the watch is stopped, then restarted with the passage of the first distinct crest of a new group. The observer keeps count of the total number of periods until it reaches at least 15 or 20. Observations can also be made by watching the pitch and roll of the ships bow. The observer picks the point which is at the highest or lowest in the cycle and starts the timer from there. When it returns to the same point, the observer records the time. By repeating this process several times, a reliable observation can be determined. This also works during night time observation for which the observer feels the rise and fall within his or her body. With observations of a period less than 5 s and low wind velocity, the above observation may not be easily made, but such waves are less interesting than those with longer periods. Wave height With some experience, fairly reliable estimates can be made. For estimating the height of waves having wave lengths much shorter than the ship, the observer should take up a position as low down in the ship as possible, preferably amidships where the pitching is least, and on the side of the ship from which the waves are coming. Use should be made of the intervals which occur every now and then, when the rolling of the ship temporarily ceases. In cases of waves longer than the ship, the preceding method fails because the ship as a whole rises over the wave. Under these circumstances, the best results are obtained when the observer moves up or down in the ship until, when the ship is in the wave trough and upright, the oncoming waves appear just level with the horizon (Figure 4.2). The wave height is then equal to the height of the observer above the level of the water beneath him or her (a). If the ship is rolling, care should be taken to ensure that the approaching wave is in line with the horizon at the instant when the ship is upright, otherwise the height estimate will be too large (b). By far the most difficult case is that in which the wave length exceeds the length of the ship, but the wave height is small. The best estimate of height can be obtained by going as near to the water as possible, but even then the observation can be only a rough estimate. 4.2.12.3 Observations from ocean station vessels and other special ships Ocean station vessels are normally provided with suitable recording instruments. However, if visual observations are made, the above procedure should be followed; in addition, the ship should heave with the waves coming directly from ahead. For measuring wave period, an object can be thrown over the side of the vessel. For measuring wave height, marks should be painted amidships on the ships side (half a metre apart). Length can best be observed by streaming a buoy for such a distance astern that the crests of two successive waves simultaneously pass the buoy and the observer. The distance between the two is the wave length. The velocity can be obtained by noting the time of the passage of a wave from the stern to the buoy, with allowance being made for the ships speed. 4.2.12.4 Waves in coastal waters The following are additional definitions applying to sea surface in coastal waters: Breaker: The collapse of a whole wave resulting from its running into very shallow water, of a depth of the order of twice the wave height. Surf: The broken water between the shoreline and the outermost line of the breakers. Breaking sea: The partial collapse of the crest of a wave caused by the action of the wind; steepening of waves due to their encountering a contrary current or tidal stream; or steepening of waves due to their running into shoal water not shallow enough to cause a breaker. Wave observations made from a coastal station cannot be expected to be representative of conditions in the open sea. This is because the waves are affected by the depth of the water, by tidal influence and by reflection from objects such as steep rocks and jetties. In addition, the location may be sheltered by headlands or, less obviously, by shoals, both of which may affect the height and direction of travel. An extensive account of these phenomena is given in WMO (1991b). When observations are to be made despite these difficulties, the waves should be chosen in the same way as at sea. If they are required for wave research, the exact mean depth of water at the time of observation and the time itself should both be stated. 4.2.12.5 Terminology for sea and swell waves The following terminology is recommended for uses other than the inclusion in coded messages, such as supplying weather information and forecasts for shipping, publications, pilots, and so on: For the length of swell waves: Short 0100 m Average 100200 m Long over 200 m For the height of swell waves: Low 02 m Moderate 24 m Heavy over 4 m For the height of sea waves: Calm (glassy) 0 m Calm (rippled) 00.1 m Smooth (wavelets) 0.10.5 m Slight 0.51.25 m Moderate 1.252.5 m Rough 2.54 m Very rough 46 m High 69 m Very high 914 m Phenomenal over 14 m In all cases, the exact bounding length or height is included in the lower category, namely, a sea of 4 m is described as rough. When the state of the sea surface is so confused that none of the above descriptive terms can be considered appropriate, the term confused should be used. 4.2.13 Ice Several forms of floating ice may be encountered at sea. The most common is that which results from the freezing of the sea surface, namely sea ice. The reporting of sea ice is discussed in WMO/OMM/BMO 259, TP 145. The other forms are river ice and ice of land origin. River ice is encountered in harbours and estuaries where it is kept in motion by tidal streams and normally presents only a temporary hindrance to shipping. Ice of land origin in the form of icebergs is discussed separately below. Both icebergs and sea ice can be dangerous to shipping and always have an effect on navigation. Sea ice also affects the normal processes of energy exchange between the sea and the air above it. The extent of sea ice cover can vary significantly from year to year and has a great effect both on adjacent ocean areas and on the weather over large areas of the world. Its distribution is therefore of considerable interest to meteorologists and oceanographers. Broad scale observations of the extent of sea ice cover have been revolutionized by satellite photography, but observations from shore stations, ships and aircraft are still of great importance for detailed observations and for establishing the ground truth of satellite observations. At present, observations of floating ice depend almost entirely on visual estimation. The only instrumental observations of floating ice are carried out by conventional radar and new techniques, such as passive microwave sensors or sideways looking airborne radar. However, icebergs are poor reflectors of radar energy and cannot always be detected by this means. 4.2.13.1 Observations of ice accretion Ice accretion can be extremely hazardous because of its effects on small ships, particularly on vessels of less than about 1 000 gross tonnage. Even on ships of the order of 10 000 gross tonnage, it can cause radio and radar failures due to the icing of aerials. Visibility from the bridge may also be affected. Problems have occurred due to icing on the deck cargoes of large container ships. Apart from its possible effect on stability, it may cause difficulty in unloading cargo at the port of destination when containers and their lashings are frozen solidly to the deck. Fishing vessels are particularly vulnerable to ice accretion. Further information is given in WMO (1991b), while a detailed consideration of the meteorological aspects appears in WMO (1974). There are two main types of icing at sea: icing from seawater and icing from freshwater. Icing from sea- water may be due either to spray and seawater thrown up by the interaction between the ship or installation and the waves, or to spray blown from the crests of the waves, or both. Icing from freshwater may be due to freezing rain and/or drizzle, or occasionally when the occurrence of wet snow is followed by a drop in temperature, or it may be due to freezing fog. Both types may occur simultaneously. The most important meteorological elements governing ice accretion at sea are wind speed and air temperature. The higher the wind speed relative to the ship and the lower the air temperature, the greater the rate of ice accretion. There appears to be no limiting air temperature below which the icing risk decreases. Provision is made in the WMO code form for ships (WMO, 1995b), used for radio weather reports from ships at sea, for the inclusion of reports of ice accretion. This may be done either in code or in plain language. The coded form, in a single five figure group, provides for reports of the cause of icing, the ice thickness and the rate of accretion. Plain language reports must be preceded by the word ICING and are particularly encouraged for indicating features of the icing which are dangerous to vessels. 4.2.13.2 Formation and development of sea ice Ice less than 30 cm thick The first indication of ice formation is the appearance of small ice spicules or plates in the top few centimetres of the water. These spicules, known as frazil ice, form in large quantities and give the sea an oily appearance. As cooling continues the frazil ice coalesces to form grease ice, which has a matt appearance. Under near freezing, but as yet ice free, conditions, snow falling on the surface may result in the sea surface becoming covered by a layer of slush. These forms may be regrouped by the action of wind and waves to form shuga and all are classified as new ice. With further cooling, sheets of ice rind or nilas are formed, depending on the rate of cooling and on the salinity of the water. Ice rind is formed when water of low salinity freezes into a thin layer of brittle ice which is almost free of salt, whereas when water of high salinity freezes, especially if the process is rapid and the wind is very light, the ice has an elastic property which is characteristic of nilas. The latter form of ice is subdivided, according to its thickness, into dark and light nilas; the second, more advanced form reaches a maximum thickness of 10 cm. The action of wind and waves may break up ice rind or nilas into pancake ice, which can later freeze and thicken into grey ice and grey white ice, the latter attaining a thickness of up to 30 cm. These forms of ice are referred to collectively as young ice. In rough conditions this ice may be broken up into ice cakes or floes of various sizes. Ice 30 cm to 2 m thick The next stage of development is known as first year ice and is subdivided into thin, medium and thick categories. Thin first year ice has a thickness of 30 to 70 cm. Medium first year ice has a range of thickness from 70 to 120 cm. In polar areas, thick first year ice may attain a thickness of approximately 2 m at the end of the winter. Old ice Thick first year ice may survive the summer melt season and is then classified as old ice. This category is subdivided into second year ice or multi year ice, depending on whether the floes have survived one or more summers. The thickness of old ice is normally in the range of 1.2 to 3 m or more before the onset of the melt season. Towards the end of the summer melt season, old ice may be considerably reduced in thickness. Old ice may often be recognized by a bluish surface, in contrast to the greenish tint of first year ice. Snow cover During winter, ice is usually covered with snow which insulates it from the air above and tends to slow down its rate of growth. The thickness of the snow cover varies considerably from region to region as a result of differing climatic conditions. Its depth may also vary considerably within very short distances in response to variable winds and to ice topography. Decay of sea ice While the snow cover persists, almost 90 per cent of the incoming radiation is reflected back into space. Eventually, however, the snow begins to melt as air temperatures rise above 0C in early summer, and the resulting freshwater forms puddles on the surface. These puddles absorb about 90 per cent of the incoming radiation and rapidly enlarge as they melt the surrounding snow or ice. Eventually, the puddles penetrate to the bottom surface of the floes and are known as thaw holes. This slow decay process is characteristic of ice in the Arctic Ocean and seas where movement is restricted by the coastline or islands. Where ice is free to drift into warmer waters (for example, the Antarctic, East Greenland and the Labrador Sea), decay is accelerated in response to wave erosion as well as warmer air and sea temperatures. Movement of sea ice Sea ice is divided into two main types according to its mobility. One type is drift ice, which is continually in motion under the action of the wind and current; the other is fast ice, attached to the coast or islands, which does not move. When ice concentration is high, namely seven tenths or more, drift ice may be replaced by the term pack ice. Wind stress in the drift ice causes the floes to move in an approximately downwind direction. The deflecting force due to the Earths rotation (Coriolis force) causes the floes to deviate about 30 to the right of the surface wind direction in the northern hemisphere. Since the surface wind is itself deviated by a similar amount but in the opposite sense from the geostrophic wind (measured directly from isobars), the direction of movement of the ice floes, due to the wind drift alone, can be considered to be parallel to the isobars. The rate of movement due to wind drift varies not only with the wind speed, but also with the concentration of the drift ice and the extent of deformation (see subsection below). In very open ice (1/103/10) there is much more freedom to respond to the wind than in close ice (7/108/10), where free space is limited. Two per cent of the wind speed is a reasonable average for the rate of ice drift caused by the wind in close ice, but much higher rates of ice drift may be encountered in open ice. Since it is afloat, a force is exerted on drift ice by currents that are present in the upper layers of the water, whether these are tidal in nature or have a more consistent direction due to other forces. It is usually very difficult to differentiate between wind- and current induced ice drift, but in any case, where both are present, the resultant motion is always the vector sum of the two. Wind stress normally predominates, particularly in offshore areas. Deformation of sea ice Where the ice is subject to pressure, its surface becomes deformed. On new and young ice, this may result in rafting as one ice floe overrides its neighbour; in thicker ice, it leads to the formation of ridges and hummocks according to the pattern of the convergent forces causing the pressure. During the process of ridging and hummocking, when pieces of ice are piled up above the general ice level, large quantities of ice are also forced downward to support the weight of the ice in the ridge or hummock. The draught of a ridge can be three to five times as great as its height, and these deformations are major impediments to navigation. Freshly formed ridges are normally less difficult to navigate than older weathered and consolidated ridges. 4.2.13.3 Icebergs Icebergs are large masses of floating ice derived from glaciers, including ice shelves. The depth of a berg under water, compared with its height above, varies widely with different shapes of bergs. The underwater mass of an Antarctic iceberg derived from a floating ice shelf is usually less than the underwater mass of icebergs derived from Greenland glaciers. A typical Antarctic tabular berg, of which the uppermost 10 to 20 m is composed of old snow, will show one part of its mass above the water to five parts below. However, the ratio for an Arctic berg, composed almost wholly of ice with much less snow, is typically 1:8. Icebergs diminish in size in three different ways: by calving, melting and wave erosion. A berg is said to calve when a piece breaks off; this disturbs its equilibrium and as a result it may drift at a different angle or capsize. Large underwater projections, which may be difficult to observe, are a usual feature of icebergs. In cold water, melting takes place mainly on the water line, while, in warm water, a berg melts mainly from below and calves frequently. It is particularly dangerous to approach a berg melting in warm water for it is unstable and may fragment or overturn at any time. There are likely to be many growlers and bergy bits around rapidly disintegrating icebergs, thus forming a particular hazard to navigation. Bergs are poor reflectors of radar energy and cannot always be detected by this means. Their breakdown fragments (bergy bits and growlers) are even more difficult to detect with a ships radar since they are often obscured by the background clutter from waves and swell. These smaller fragments are especially dangerous to shipping. Despite their low profile, they contain sufficient mass to damage a vessel which comes into contact with them at normal cruising speed. Some growlers consisting of pure ice hardly break the sea surface and are extremely difficult to detect. 4.2.13.4 Observations of sea ice and icebergs The key to good ice observing lies in familiarity with the nomenclature and experience. WMO (1970), with its illustrations, is the best guide to the mariner for ice identification. The four important features of sea ice which affect navigation are as follows: (a) Thickness: the stage of development (i.e. new ice, young ice, first year ice or old ice and their subdivisions); (b) Amount: concentration (estimated according to the tenths of the sea surface covered by ice); (c) The form of the ice, whether it is fast or drift ice and the size of the constituent floes; (d) Movement: particularly with regard to its effect on deformation. Since icebergs represent such a hazard to navigation, particularly at night or in poor visibility, it is also important to report the number in sight at the time of the observation, especially in waters where they are less frequently observed. Sea ice can be reported in plain language or by the use of codes. WMO has adopted two sea ice codes for international use. The simplest is the ICE group appended to the SHIP code format. The ICEAN code has been developed for specialist use for the transmission of sea ice analysis and prognoses. There are two basic rules for observation from ships and shore stations: (a) Obtain a large field of view by making the observation from the highest convenient point above the sea surface (for example, the top of a lighthouse, the bridge or crow s nest of a ship); (b) Do not attempt to report sea ice conditions beyond a radius of more than half the distance between the point of observation and the horizon. WMO has developed a set of symbols for use on maps depicting actual or forecast sea ice conditions. These symbols are intended for the international exchange of sea ice information and for radiofacsimile transmission of ice data. 4.2.14 Observations of special phenomena When describing waterspouts, the direction of rotation should always be given as if seen from above. 4.2.15 Operations of the voluntary observing fleet An essential initial step in recruiting voluntary observers Voluntary Observing Ships is to obtain the permission of the owners and master of the vessel. When permission has been granted and the observer ship has been identified, Port Meteorological Officers should provide input intodo the following aspects: (a) Install calibrated instruments ensuring best exposureCare of the instruments in general; (b) Issue stationery or install electronic logbook softwareExposure and reading of the hygrometer or psychrometer; (c) Train observers on instrument care and operationObtaining seawater samples and reading the temperature thereof; (d) Train observers in all aspects of observing practicesCloud observations with particular reference to cloud height; (e) Demonstrate use of electronic logbook software and compilation of the observationUse of the present weather code; (f) Record the required ship MetadataCoding and transmission of observations by radio; (g) Demonstrate methods of observation transmission;The ways in which mariners may use the weather information they receive by radio from various countries during their voyage. (h) Explain NMS marine forecast products. Once a ship has been recruited, the Port Meteorological Officer should endeavour to visit it at least every three months to check the accuracy of the instruments and to renew the supply of forms, documents, and so on. The Port Meteorological Officer should take the opportunity to foster interest in meteorology, to explain the mutual value to seafarers and meteorologists of accurate weather observations.information and to offer access to meteorological data under way from the different National Meteorological Service facsimile broadcasts, e-mail receipt, and so forth. Full information on the WMO VOS scheme is given in WMO (2001). 4.3 Moored buoys A typical moored buoy designed for deep ocean operation is equipped with sensors to measure the following variables: (a) Wind speed; (b) Wind direction; (c) Atmospheric pressure; (d) Sea surface temperature; (e) Wave height and period; (f) Air temperature; (g) Dewpoint temperature or relative humidity (to be converted to dewpoint temperature). Additional elements measured by some data buoys are as follows: (a) Wave spectra (directional or non directional); (b) Solar radiation; (c) Surface current or current profilers; (d) Salinity; (e) Subsurface temperature down to 500 m; (f) Atmospheric visibility; (g) Precipitation. In addition to the meteorological and oceanographic measurements, it is usual to monitor buoy location and various housekeeping parameters to aid data quality control and maintenance. Moored-buoy technology has matured to the extent that it is usual to obtain six months to one year of unattended operation even in the most severe conditions. Operational life is largely determined by the life of the sensors, with sensor exchanges expected at 12- to 18 month intervals. The observations from moored buoys are now considered to be better than ship observations with regard to the accuracy and reliability of measurements (Wilkerson and Earle, 1990). Typical measurement uncertainties obtained from operational buoys are as follows (WMO, 2006: Guide to Meteorological Instruments and Observations, WMO-No. 8, Seventh Edition, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, Switzerland). : Wind speed 0.51 m s1 or 10% Wind direction 10 Air temperature 0.1C Sea levelAir pressure 0.15 hPa Sea surface temperature 0.1C Relative humidityDew Point 0.5C 6% Significant wave height 0.2 m or 5% Wave Direction 10 Wave period 1 s The standard suite of sensors on moored buoys samples wind speed, peak 5-sec gust; wind direction; barometric pressure; air temperature; water temperature; and non-directional ocean wave energy spectra, from which significant wave height and dominant wave period are determined. For the tsunameters, water-column height is the standard measurement. Atmospheric Pressure Atmospheric pressure and its variability in both time and space are crucially important in synoptic meteorological analysis and forecasting. Most buoys measure atmospheric pressure by means of digital aneroid barometers. Pressure is found from the electrical capacitance across parallel pressure-sensitive plates. The capacitance between the plates increases as pressure increases. The following pressure measurements are made. Station pressure is the actual measurement made at the station in hectopascals (hPa) by the two barometers at the elevation of the barometer. Sea level pressure is the pressure reduced to sea level from the station pressure in units of hPa. For most buoys this is very close to the station pressure. The greatest difference between sea level pressure and station pressure will be from Great Lakes sites. The conversion to sea level pressure is made using the procedures described in (WBAN 1964 - WBAN, 1963: Manual of Barometry, Vol 1, Ed 1, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.) Many buoys that are climatologically in the path of hurricanes or intense low pressure systems have the capability of measuring supplemental one-minute average pressure data. These data are recorded after the hourly pressure data fall below a predetermined threshold (e.g. 1008 hPa in the tropics.) IDs associated with supplemental pressure data are as follows. The minimum 1-minute barometric pressure in hPa from the primary and secondary barometer is the minimum 1 minute mean barometric pressure for the entire hour. The time is the minute within the hour that the minimum pressure occurred. Wind Measurements Wind measurements are the most important measurements made by buoys. They are essential for the marine weather forecaster. Typical buoys use a 4-blade, impeller-driven, wind-vane sensor. The final measurements are statistical estimates of the wind from time series of instantaneous wind samples taken at a minimum rate of 1 Hertz (Hz) over a particular length of time. The sampling rate is a function of the payload. Most moored buoys use an 8-minute acquisition period. The following standard wind measurements are produced each hour. Wind direction is the direction from which the wind is blowing in degrees clockwise from true north. It is a unit vector average of the record of wind direction. Wind speed is the scalar average of the wind speed in meters per second (m/s) over the sampling interval. Wind speed maximum is the highest wind speed in the wind record. Gusts are determined from the highest 5-second running mean of the record. At the end of an acquisition period, statistical processing is performed, and the output message is updated with the new statistics and six 10-minute segments. Statistical processing includes the calculation of the mean for both direction and speed and the standard deviation of the speed. The hour's data do not represent data from minute 0 to minute 59. Rather, it represents the latest, complete six 10-minute segments before the end of the last acquisition. The 10-minute segments are, however, bounded by minutes 0, 10, 20, etc. Wind speed at 10 m above site elevation and 20 m above site elevation are derived from an algorithm (Liu et al., 1979 - Liu, W.T., Katsaros, K.B., and Businger, J.A., 1979: Bulk parameterization of air-sea exchanges of heat and water vapor including the molecular constants at the interface, J. Atmos. Sciences, 36, 17221735.) that uses the height of the anemometer, the wind speed, a constant relative humidity of 85%, a constant sea-level pressure of 1013.25, and the air and water temperature. If either the air or water temperature are unavailable, then the neutral stability is assumed. Assuming neutral stability can introduce an error of up to 5 percent. If both are missing then neither 10 nor 20-m wind speeds are made. Temperature Temperature is one of the basic buoy measurements. Electronic thermistors are used to make all temperature measurements which are updated in degrees Celsius (C). Temperature measurements are important for deriving sea level pressure and standard-height wind speeds. Air Temperature Air temperature measurements are generally very reliable; however, it is important to note that the physical position of temperature sensors can adversely affect measurements. Air temperature housings can lead to non-representative readings in low wind conditions. Air temperature is sampled at a rate of 1Hz during the sampling period. Water Temperature While there are generally few problems with water temperature measurements, it should be noted that the depth of water temperature sensors vary with buoy hull, and that the temperature probes on buoys are attached to the inside of the hull. Since buoy hulls are highly thermally conducting, the temperatures measured may reflect the average temperature of the water around the submerged hull rather than the temperature of the water nearest the probe. In highly stratified water, especially during afternoon hours in calm wind conditions, the water temperature reported from a buoy may be 2 to 3 C below the skin temperature of the water. Ocean Wave Estimates Sea state estimates are probably the most complex measurements made by buoys and are extremely important to marine forecasters, mariners, ocean engineers, and scientists. On a buoy, all of the basic wave measurements are derived in some way from the estimated energy spectra of a time series of buoy motion (see NDBC Technical Document 03-01 for complete details on NDBCs wave measurements). Sea state is a description of the properties of sea surface waves at a given time and place. This might be given in terms of the wave spectrum, or more simply in terms of the significant wave height and some measure of the wave period (AMS, 2000 - American Meteorological Society, 2000: Glossary of Meteorology, Second Edition.). Moored weather buoy stations provide a measurement of the spectral variance density (IAHR, List of Sea State Parameters) which will be referred to as spectral wave density. Most buoys derive all nondirectional wave parameters, heights and periods, steepness, etc. from spectral wave densities. Furthermore, many buoys measure the directional wave spectrum and from that derive mean and principal wave directions, and first and second normalized polar coordinates from the Fourier coefficients that centers disseminate through the WMO FM-65 WAVEOB alphanumeric codes (WMO, 1995). Non-directional Ocean Wave Estimates Most buoys use accelerometers to measure buoy heave motion. Accelerometers, fixed to remain vertically relative to the hull or stabilized parallel to the earth vertical, are used in buoys and make the vast majority of ocean wave measurements. Vertical stabilization, when used, is achieved through use of the Hippy 40 sensor. This expensive sensor has a built-in mechanical systems for keeping the accelerometer vertical as the buoy and sensor tilt. Operational non-directional-wave measurement systems report estimates of acceleration or displacement spectra. If not directly reported, displacement spectra are derived from acceleration spectra as part of the calculations involved in the shore-side processing of the wave data. From these spectra, average wave period, dominant wave period , significant wave height, and steepness are calculated. These non-directional-wave parameters are defined as follows: Average wave period, in seconds, corresponds to the wave frequency that divides the wave spectrum into equal areas. Dominant wave period or peak wave period, in seconds, is the wave period corresponding to the center frequency of the frequency band with the maximum non-directional spectral density. Significant wave height, Hm0, is estimated from the variance of the wave displacement record obtained from the displacement spectrum according to following equation:  EMBED Equation.3  where: S(f) is the spectral density of displacement, df is the width of the frequency band, fu is the upper frequency limit, and fl is the lower frequency limit. Directional Ocean Wave Estimates Directional wave measurement systems require, in addition to the measurement of vertical acceleration or heave (displacement), buoy azimuth, pitch and roll. These allow east-west slope and north-south slope to be computed. Most buoys use several different methods and sensor suites for the measurement of these angles. Water-column Height for Tsunami Detection Most buoy tsunameters use DART II technology and report water-level (actually water-column height) based on pressure and temperature measurements made at the sea-floor and converted to a water-column height by multiplying the pressure by a constant 670 mm per pound per square inch absolute. Relative Humidity Humidity sensors used by buoys employ a circuit that measures humidity through the change in capacitance of a thin polymer as it is exposed to variations in water vapor. A gas permeable membrane protects the electronic parts from spray and particulate matter but allows air to enter the instrument housing. The sensor is temperature sensitive and incorporates a temperature probe to provide a temperature correction in the calculation of relative humidity. The sensor samples at a rate of 1Hz during the sampling period. Ocean Sensors In order to understand and predict the ocean, its properties must be monitored. Buoys help to monitor the ocean by collecting surface currents, ocean current profiles, near surface temperature and water quality parameters. Included in the water quality parameters are turbidity, redox potential (Eh), pH, chlorophyll-a, and dissolved oxygen. Buoy data are quality controlled in real-time and distributed over the Global Telecommunications System (GTS). 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R n4^`4OBDFHJ/\]3VX67-.;DƷ裖zm^mNmhZ7hA6OJQJ]^JhZ7hA0J^NHOJQJhZ7hA0J^OJQJhZ7hANHOJQJhZ7hA@NHOJQJhZ7hA@OJQJhZ7hA@OJQJ hZ7hAhZ7hACJOJQJaJ hZ7hA0J_CJOJQJaJ hZ7hACJEHOJQJaJhZ7hAOJQJhZ7hA0J_OJQJ;Jj/nviC\[PONKJ !¾Rlz{VWpqn{" 34货y货lhZ7hA@OJQJhZ7hA6OJQJ]^JhZ7hA@NHOJQJhZ7hA@NHOJQJhZ7hA@OJQJhZ7hA0J^@OJQJhZ7hAOJQJhZ7hA0J^OJQJhZ7hANHOJQJhZ7hAOJQJhZ7hANHOJQJ*>?3B(*mnqropKLr}$vۦ藅"hZ7hA0J^6@OJQJ]hZ7hA0J^@OJQJhZ7hA0J^6OJQJ]hZ7hAOJQJhZ7hANHOJQJhZ7hANHOJQJhZ7hA0J^OJQJhZ7hAOJQJhZ7hA@OJQJ1it89JQu(pq۾ۭraKa>ahZ7hA@mH sH *hZ7hA6@OJQJ]^JmH sH  hZ7hA@OJQJmH sH hZ7hA@OJQJ.hZ7hA6@NHOJQJ]^JmH sH *hZ7hA6@OJQJ]^JmH sH  hZ7hA@OJQJmH sH hZ7hA6OJQJ]^JhZ7hANHOJQJhZ7hAOJQJhZ7hA0J^OJQJhZ7hA@OJQJ78qhVXZ|6ݬ񛅛reZhZ7hAOJQJhZ7hA@mH sH  hZ7hA@OJQJmH sH U*hZ7hA6@OJQJ]^JmH sH  hZ7hA@OJQJmH sH hZ7hAOJQJmH sH  hZ7hANHOJQJmH sH  hZ7hANHOJQJmH sH &hZ7hA6OJQJ]^JmH sH hZ7hAOJQJmH sH !0| &$[CgdAE$a$gdAE$a$gdG\Report on Marine Science Affairs No. 5, WMO No. 336, Geneva. 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Final Report of the First Session of the Commission f(Zxz|0<h|~ ^۸ۜyl_l۸N hZ7hA@OJQJmH sH hZ7hA@OJQJhZ7hA@OJQJhZ7hA@mH sH *hZ7hA6@OJQJ]^JmH sH  hZ7hA@OJQJmH sH hZ7hAmH sH hZ7hAOJQJmH sH &hZ7hA6OJQJ]^JmH sH hZ7hAOJQJmH sH hZ7hAOJQJhZ7hAOJQJ^ &vxBDFX:<@^1ȵȨȐyygUyyyJhZ7hAOJQJ"hZ7hA6NHOJQJ]^J"hZ7hA6NHOJQJ]^JhZ7hA6OJQJ]^J hZ7hAhZ7hAOJQJhZ7hA@OJQJhZ7hA@OJQJ$hZ7hA@NHOJQJmH sH  hZ7hA@OJQJmH sH  hZ7hA@OJQJmH sH *hZ7hA6@OJQJ]^JmH sH 1p}nZFHLMTU 徵uhZ7hAOJQJmH sH hZ7hANHOJQJ"hZ7hA6NHOJQJ]^J"hZ7hA6@OJQJ]^JhZ7hA@hZ7hA@OJQJUhZ7hANHOJQJhZ7hAOJQJhZ7hAOJQJhZ7hA6OJQJ]^J+or Marine Meteorology Working Group on Marine Observing Systems Subgroup on Voluntary Observing Ships (Athens 1999), WMO TC CMM 1999, Geneva. World Meteorological Organization, 2001: Guide to Marine Meteorological Services. Third edition, WMO No. 471, Geneva. World Meteorological Organization, 2003: Manual on the Global Observing System. Volumes I and II, WMO No. 544, Geneva. 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Progress Report to the Atmospheric Environment Service, Canada, 32 pp. (available from http://www.soc.soton.ac.uk/JRD/MET/PDF/airflow_report.pdf). ___________  34] &'[\]ǶǫwZIG<80jhMUhAh^hACJaJU!jh^hA0JCJUaJ9hCxhA6CJOJQJ\^JaJmH nHo(sH tH3hA6CJOJQJ\^JaJmH nHo(sH tH3h5V/6CJOJQJ\^JaJmH nHo(sH tHhZ7hAOJQJ hZ7hANHOJQJmH sH hZ7hAOJQJmH sH *hZ7hA6NHOJQJ]^JmH sH &hZ7hA6OJQJ]^JmH sH  NDBC no longer makes wave measurements at C-MAN stations using laser wave height sensors.     DBCP-XIX/2.1 page  PAGE 6 DBCP-XX/Doc 2.1 p.  PAGE 25 DBCP-XXIV/Doc. 6.2, p.  PAGE 1 Appendix DBCP-XXIV/Doc. 6.2, Appendix A p.  PAGE 2 Appendix A DBCP-XXIV/Doc. 6.2, Appendix B p.  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